Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC • 1500 BC)

From the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, the individuality of the early village cultures began to be replaced by a more homogenous style of existence. By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast. It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from the main river of that region— Indus.The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.

Important Discoveries Year Site Discovered by
192I Harappa Dayaram Sahni
I922 Mohenjodaro R. D. Banerjee
I927 Sutkagendor R. L. Staine
I93I Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar
1953 Rangpur M. Vats
I953 Kalibangan A. Ghosh
[955-56 Ropar Y. D. Sharma
I957 Lothal S. R. Rao
1972-75 Surkotada .I. Joshi
1973-74 Banwali R. S. Bisht

Difference Between Pre-Harappan and roto-Harappan

Cultures

Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre-Harappan, while proto-Harappan cultures are those pre- Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have aniieipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In shun, all prolo-Harappan cultures are necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto-Harappan cultures.
 

Script and Language

Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon. written from right to left in one line and then from left to .right in the next line. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must remain so until the Harappan script is deciphered.

Pottery

Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked. It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being
more common. Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient
world. On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.

Seals

They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people. Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone). The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the Harappans. The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription. Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals. Main type - (a) the square type with a carved animal and inscription, (b) the rectangular type with inscription only.

Burial Practices

Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro, viz. complete burials. fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts birds) and post-cremation burials. But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to the north.

Religion

The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by lour animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered. The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal. Kalibangan and Harappa. Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (piapal, etc.) and animals (unicorn etc) Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

Trade and Commerce

Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra. South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain. Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport. Bullock carts and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal. The Sumerian texts refer lo trade relations with Meluha’ which was the ancient name given to Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).

Decline

After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. Some ascribe this to the
decreasing fertility of the soil t)ii account of the increasing salinity, caused by the expansion of the

neighbouring desert. Others attribute ii to some kind of depression in the land, which caused Hoods. Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it. According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, must have contributed partly in the decline. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, the most accepted version is that of ecological destruction.